Opal

Opal
The "Rainbow Shield," an opal pendant made with Australian gem opal
General
Category	Mineraloid
Formula (repeating unit)	Hydrated silica. SiO2·nH2O
Identification
Color	Colorless, white, yellow, red, orange, green, brown, black, blue
Crystal habit	Irregular veins, in masses, in nodules
Crystal system	Amorphous[1]
Cleavage	None[1]
Fracture	Conchoidal to uneven[1]
Mohs scalehardness	5.5–6[1]
Luster	Subvitreous to waxy[1]
Streak	White
Diaphaneity	opaque, translucent, transparent
Specific gravity	2.15 (+.08, -.90)[1]
Density	2.09
Polish luster	Vitreous to resinous[1]
Optical properties	Single refractive, often anomalous double refractive due to strain[1]
Refractive index	1.450 (+.020, -.080) Mexican opal may read as low as 1.37, but typically reads 1.42–1.43[1]
Birefringence	none[1]
Pleochroism	None[1]
Ultravioletfluorescence	black or white body color: inert to white to moderate light blue, green, or yellow in long and short wave, may also phosphoresce, common opal: inert to strong green or yellowish green in long and short wave, may phosphoresce; fire opal: inert to moderate greenish brown in long and short wave, may phosphoresce[1]
Absorption spectra	green stones: 660nm, 470nm cutoff[1]
Diagnostic features	darkening upon heating
Solubility	hot salt water, bases, methanol,humic acid, hydrofluoric acid
References	[2][3]

Opal is a hydrated amorphous form of silica; its water content may range from 3 to 21% by weight, but is usually between 6 and 10%. Because of its amorphous character, it is classed as a mineraloid, unlike the other crystalline forms of silica, which are classed as minerals. It is deposited at a relatively low temperature and may occur in the fissures of almost any kind of rock, being most commonly found with limonite, sandstone,rhyolite, marl, and basalt. Opal is the national gemstone of Australia.

The internal structure of precious opal makes it diffract light; depending on the conditions in which it formed, it can take on many colors. Precious opal ranges from clear through white, gray, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, magenta, rose, pink, slate, olive, brown, and black. Of these hues, the black opals are the most rare, whereas white and greens are the most common. It varies in optical density from opaque to semitransparent.

Precious opal[edit]

Precious opal consists of spheres of silicon dioxide molecules arranged in regular, closely packed planes. (Idealized diagram)

Multicolor rough crystal opal from Coober Pedy, South Australia, expressing nearly every color of the visible spectrum

Precious opal replacing ichthyosaurbackbone; display specimen, South Australian Museum

Precious opal shows a variable interplay of internal colors, and though it is a mineraloid, it has an internal structure. At microscopic scales, precious opal is composed of silica spheres some 150 to 300 nm in diameter in a hexagonal or cubic close-packed lattice. It was shown by J. V. Sanders in the mid-1960s,^[4][5] that these ordered silica spheres produce the internal colors by causing the interference and diffraction of light passing through the microstructure of the opal.^[6] The regularity of the sizes and the packing of these spheres determines the quality of precious opal. Where the distance between the regularly packed planes of spheres is around half the wavelength of a component of visible light, the light of that wavelength may be subject to diffraction from the grating created by the stacked planes. The colors that are observed are determined by the spacing between the planes and the orientation of planes with respect to the incident light. The process can be described by Bragg's law of diffraction.

Visible light of diffracted wavelengths cannot pass through large thicknesses of the opal. This is the basis of the optical band gap in a photonic crystal. The notion that opals are photonic crystals for visible light was expressed in 1995 by Vasily Astratov's group.^[7] In addition, microfractures may be filled with secondary silica and form thin lamellae inside the opal during solidification. The term opalescence is commonly and erroneously used to describe this unique and beautiful phenomenon, which is correctly termed play of color. Contrarily, opalescence is correctly applied to the milky, turbid appearance of common or potch opal. Potch does not show a play of color.

For gemstone use, most opal is cut and polished to form a cabochon. "Solid" opal refers to polished stones consisting wholly of precious opal. Opals too thin to produce a "solid" may be combined with other materials to form attractive gems. An opal doublet consists of a relatively thin layer of precious opal, backed by a layer of dark-colored material, most commonly ironstone, dark or black common opal (potch), onyx, or obsidian. The darker backing emphasizes the play of color, and results in a more attractive display than a lighter potch. An opal triplet is similar to a doublet, but has a third layer, a domed cap of clear quartz or plastic on the top. The cap takes a high polish and acts as a protective layer for the opal. The top layer also acts as a magnifier, to emphasize the play of color of the opal beneath, which is often of lower quality. Triplet opals therefore have a more artificial appearance, and are not classed as precious opal. Jewelry applications of precious opal can be somewhat limited by opal's sensitivity to heat due primarily to its relatively high water content and predisposition to scratching.^[8]

Combined with modern techniques of polishing, doublet opal produces a similar effect to black or boulder opal at a fraction of the price. Doublet opal also has the added benefit of having genuine opal as the top visible and touchable layer, unlike triplet opals.

Common opal[edit]

Besides the gemstone varieties that show a play of color, the other kinds of common opal include the milk opal, milky bluish to greenish (which can sometimes be of gemstone quality); resin opal, which is honey-yellow with a resinous luster; wood opal, which is caused by the replacement of the organic material in wood with opal;^[9] menilite, which is brown or grey; hyalite, a colorless glass-clear opal sometimes called Muller's glass; geyserite, also called siliceous sinter, deposited around hot springs or geysers; and diatomite ordiatomaceous earth, the accumulations of diatom shells or tests.

• 

  A piece of milky raw opal from Andamooka, South Australia
 
• 

  An opal "triplet" from Andamooka showing blue and green fire
 
• 

  Fire opal from Mexico
 
• 

  A rock showing striations of opal throughout
 
• 

  A cabochon cut from a piece of opalized wood
 
• 

  Precious opal replacing calcite of bivalve shells, from Coober Pedy; display specimen, South Australian Museum

Other varieties of opal[edit]

Brightness of the fire in opal ranges on a scale of 1 to 5 (5 being the brightest)^[10]

Australian opal doublet, a slice of precious opal with a backing of ironstone

Faceted yellow fire opal, 4.76 ct, Mexico

Fire opal is a transparent to translucent opal, with warm body colors of yellow to orange to red. Although it does not usually show any play of color, occasionally a stone will exhibit bright green flashes. The most famous source of fire opals is the state of Querétaro in Mexico; these opals are commonly called Mexican fire opals. Fire opals that do not show play of color are sometimes referred to as jelly opals. Mexican opals are sometimes cut in their ryholitic host material if it is hard enough to allow cutting and polishing. This type of Mexican opal is referred to as a Cantera opal. Also, a type of opal from Mexico, referred to as Mexican water opal, is a colorless opal which exhibits either a bluish or golden internal sheen.^[11]

Girasol opal is a term sometimes mistakenly and improperly used to refer to fire opals, as well as a type of transparent to semitransparent type milky quartz from Madagascar which displays an asterism, or star effect, when cut properly. However, the true girasol opal^[11] is a type of hyalite opal that exhibits a bluish glow or sheen that follows the light source around. It is not a play of color as seen in precious opal, but rather an effect from microscopic inclusions. It is also sometimes referred to as water opal, too, when it is from Mexico. The two most notable locations of this type of opal are Oregon and Mexico.^{[citation needed]}

Peruvian opal (also called blue opal) is a semiopaque to opaque blue-green stone found in Peru, which is often cut to include the matrix in the more opaque stones. It does not display pleochroism. Blue opal also comes from Oregon in the Owyhee region, as well as from Nevada around Virgin Valley.^{[citation needed]}

Sources of opal[edit]

Gem opal from Brazil

Polished opal from Yowah (Yowah Nut^[12]), Queensland, Australia

Multicolored solid black opal cabochon from Lightning Ridge, NSW

Boulder opal, Carisbrooke Station near Winton, Queensland

Australian opal has often been cited as accounting for 95-97% of the world's supply of precious opal,^[13][14] with the state of South Australia accounting for 80% of the world's supply.^[15]Recent data suggests that the world supply of precious opal may have changed. In 2012, Ethiopian opal production was estimated to be 14,000 kg (31,000 lb) by the United States Geological Survey.^[16] USGS data from the same period (2012), reveals that Australian opal production to be $41 million.^[17] Because of the units of measurement, it is not possible to directly compare Australian and Ethiopian opal production, but these data and others suggest that the traditional percentages given for Australian opal production may be overstated.^[18]Yet, the validity of data in the USGS report appears to conflict with that of Laurs and others^{[citation needed]} and Mesfin^{[citation needed]}, who estimated the 2012 Ethiopian opal output (from Wegal Tena) to be only 750 kg (1,650 lb).

Australian opal[edit]

The town of Coober Pedy in South Australia is a major source of opal. The world's largest and most valuable gem opal "Olympic Australis" was found in August 1956 at the "Eight Mile" opal field in Coober Pedy. It weighs 17,000 carats (3450 g) and is 11 in (280 mm) long, with a height of 4.75 in (121 mm) and a width of 4.5 in (110 mm).^[19] The Mintabie Opal Fieldlocated about 250 km (160 mi) north west of Coober Pedy has also produced large quantities of crystal opal and the rarer black opal. Over the years, it has been sold overseas incorrectly as Coober Pedy opal. The black opal is said to be some of the best examples found in Australia. Andamooka in South Australia is also a major producer of matrix opal, crystal opal, and black opal'. Another Australian town, Lightning Ridge in New South Wales, is the main source of black opal, opal containing a predominantly dark background (dark-gray to blue-black displaying the play of color). Boulder opal consists of concretions and fracture fillings in a dark siliceous ironstone matrix. It is found sporadically in western Queensland, from Kynuna in the north, to Yowah and Koroit in the south.^[20] Its largest quantities are found around Jundah and Quilpie (known as the "home of the boulder opal"^[21]) in South West Queensland. Australia also has opalised fossil remains, including dinosaur bones in New South Wales, and marine creatures in South Australia.^[22] The rarest type of Australian opal is "pipe" opal, closely related to boulder opal, which forms in sandstone with some iron oxide content, usually as fossilized tree roots.^{[citation needed]}

Ethiopian opal[edit]

Nodule of gem-grade precious Ethiopian Welo opal

Although it has been reported that Northern African opal was used to make tools as early as 4000 BC, the first published report of gem opal from Ethiopia appeared in the 1994, with the discovery of precious opal in the Menz Gishe District, North Shewa Province.^[23] The opal, found mostly in the form of nodules, was of volcanic origin and was found predominantly within weathered layers of rhyolite.^[24] This Shewa Province opal, was mostly dark brown in color, and had a tendency to crack. These qualities made it unpopular in the gem trade. In 2008, a new opal deposit was found near the town of Wegel Tena, in Ethiopia's Wollo Province. The Wollo Province opal was different from the previous Ethiopian opal finds in that it more closely resembled the sedimentary opals of Australia and Brazil, with a light background and often vivid play-of-color.^[25] Wollo Province opal, more commonly referred to as "Welo" or "Wello" opal has become the dominant Ethiopian opal in the gem trade.^[26]

Virgin Valley, Nevada[edit]

Multicolored rough opal specimen from Virgin Valley, Nevada, US

The Virgin Valley^[27] opal fields of Humboldt County in northern Nevada produce a wide variety of precious black, crystal, white, fire, and lemon opal. The black fire opal is the official gemstone of Nevada. Most of the precious opal is partial wood replacement. The precious opal is hosted and found within a subsurface horizon or zone of bentonite in-place which is considered a "lode" deposit. Opals which have weathered out of the in-place deposits are alluvial and considered placer deposits. Miocene-age opalised teeth, bones, fish, and a snake head have been found. Some of the opal has high water content and may desiccate and crack when dried. The largest producing mines of Virgin Valley have been the famous Rainbow Ridge,^[28] Royal Peacock,^[29] Bonanza,^[30] Opal Queen,^[31] and WRT Stonetree/Black Beauty^[32] Mines. The largest unpolished black opal in the Smithsonian Institution, known as the "Roebling opal",^[33] came out of the tunneled portion of the Rainbow Ridge Mine in 1917, and weighs 2,585 carats. The largest polished black opal in the Smithsonian Institution comes from the Royal Peacock opal mine in the Virgin Valley, weighing 160 carats, known as the "Black Peacock".^[34]

Other locations[edit]

Another source of white base opal or creamy opal in the United States is Spencer, Idaho.^{[citation needed]} A high percentage of the opal found there occurs in thin layers.

Other significant deposits of precious opal around the world can be found in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Turkey, Indonesia, Brazil (in Pedro II, Piauí^[35]), Honduras (more precisely in Erandique), Guatemala and Nicaragua.

In late 2008, NASA announced it had discovered opal deposits on Mars.^[36]

Synthetic opal[edit]

Opals of all varieties have been synthesized experimentally and commercially. The discovery of the ordered sphere structure of precious opal led to its synthesis by Pierre Gilson in 1974.^[6] The resulting material is distinguishable from natural opal by its regularity; under magnification, the patches of color are seen to be arranged in a "lizard skin" or "chicken wire" pattern. Furthermore, synthetic opals do not fluoresce under ultraviolet light. Synthetics are also generally lower in density and are often highly porous.

Two notable producers of synthetic opal are Kyocera and Inamori of Japan. Most so-called synthetics, however, are more correctly termed "imitation opal", as they contain substances not found in natural opal (e.g., plastic stabilizers). The imitation opals seen in vintage jewelry are often foiled glass, glass-based "Slocum stone", or later plastic materials.

Other research in macroporous structures have yielded highly ordered materials that have similar optical properties to opals and have been used in cosmetics.^[37]

Local atomic structure of opals[edit]

The lattice of spheres of opal that cause the interference with light are several hundred times larger than the fundamental structure of crystalline silica. As a mineraloid, no unit cell describes the structure of opal. Nevertheless, opals can be roughly divided into those that show no signs of crystalline order (amorphous opal) and those that show signs of the beginning of crystalline order, commonly termed cryptocrystalline or microcrystalline opal.^[38] Dehydration experiments and infrared spectroscopy have shown that most of the H₂O in the formula of SiO₂·nH₂O of opals is present in the familiar form of clusters of molecular water. Isolated water molecules, and silanols, structures such as SiOH, generally form a lesser proportion of the total and can reside near the surface or in defects inside the opal.

The crystal structure of crystalline α-cristobalite. Locally, the structures of some opals, opal-C, are similar to this.

The structure of low-pressure polymorphs of anhydrous silica consist of frameworks of fully corner bonded tetrahedra of SiO₄. The higher temperature polymorphs of silica cristobalite and tridymite are frequently the first to crystallize from amorphous anhydrous silica, and the local structures of microcrystalline opals also appear to be closer to that of cristobalite and tridymite than to quartz. The structures of tridymite and cristobalite are closely related and can be described as hexagonal and cubic close-packed layers. It is therefore possible to have intermediate structures in which the layers are not regularly stacked.

Microcrystalline opal[edit]

Lussatite (Opale-Ct)

Opal-CT has been interpreted as consisting of clusters of stacking of cristobalite and tridymite over very short length scales. The spheres of opal in opal-CT are themselves made up of tiny microcrystalline blades of cristobalite and tridymite. Opal-CT has occasionally been further subdivided in the literature. Water content may be as high as 10 wt%. Lussatite is a synonym. Opal-C, also called lussatine, is interpreted as consisting of localized order of -cristobalite with a lot of stacking disorder. Typical water content is about 1.5wt%.

Noncrystalline opal[edit]

Two broad categories of noncrystalline opals, sometimes just referred to as "opal-A", have been proposed. The first of these is opal-AG consisting of aggregated spheres of silica, with water filling the space in between. Precious opal and potch opal are generally varieties of this, the difference being in the regularity of the sizes of the spheres and their packing. The second "opal-A" is opal-AN or water-containing amorphous silica-glass. Hyaliteis another name for this.

Noncrystalline silica in siliceous sediments is reported to gradually transform to opal-CT and then opal-C as a result of diagenesis, due to the increasing overburden pressure in sedimentary rocks, as some of the stacking disorder is removed.^[39]

Naming[edit]

The word 'opal' is adapted from the Roman term opalus, but the origin of this word is a matter of debate. However, most modern references suggest it is adapted from the Sanskrit word úpala.^[40]

References to the gem are made by Pliny the Elder. It is suggested to have been adapted from Ops, the wife of Saturn and goddess of fertility. The portion of Saturnalia devoted to Ops was "Opalia", similar to opalus.

Another common claim that the term is adapted from the Greek word, opallios. This word has two meanings, one is related to "seeing" and forms the basis of the English words like "opaque"; the other is "other" as in "alias" and "alter". It is claimed that opalus combined these uses, meaning "to see a change in color". However, historians have noted the first appearances of opallios do not occur until after the Romans had taken over the Greek states in 180 BC, and they had previously used the term paederos.^[40]

However, the argument for the Sanskrit origin is strong. The term first appears in Roman references around 250 BC, at a time when the opal was valued above all other gems. The opals were supplied by traders from theBosporus, who claimed the gems were being supplied from India. Before this the stone was referred to by a variety of names, but these fell from use after 250 BC.

Historical superstitions[edit]

In the Middle Ages, opal was considered a stone that could provide great luck because it was believed to possess all the virtues of each gemstone whose color was represented in the color spectrum of the opal.^[41] It was also said to confer the power of invisibility if wrapped in a fresh bay leaf and held in the hand.^[41][42] Following the publication of Sir Walter Scott's Anne of Geierstein in 1829, opal acquired a less auspicious reputation. In Scott's novel, the Baroness of Arnheim wears an opal talisman with supernatural powers. When a drop of holy water falls on the talisman, the opal turns into a colorless stone and the Baroness dies soon thereafter. Due to the popularity of Scott's novel, people began to associate opals with bad luck and death.^[41] Within a year of the publishing of Scott's novel in April 1829, the sale of opals in Europe dropped by 50%, and remained low for the next 20 years or so.^[43]

Even as recently as the beginning of the 20th century, it was believed that when a Russian saw an opal among other goods offered for sale, he or she should not buy anything more, as the opal was believed to embody the evil eye.^[41]

Opal is considered the birthstone for people born in October or under the signs of Scorpio and Libra.

Famous opals[edit]

• The Olympic Australis, the world's largest and most valuable gem opal^{[citation needed]}
• The Andamooka Opal, presented to Queen Elizabeth II, also known as the Queen's Opal
• The Addyman Plesiosaur from Andamooka, "the finest known opalised skeleton on Earth"^[22]
• The Burning of Troy, the now-lost opal presented to Joséphine de Beauharnais by Napoleon I of France and the first named opal^[44]
• The Flame Queen Opal
• The Halley's Comet Opal, the world's largest uncut black opal
• Although the clock faces above the information stand in Grand Central Terminal Manhattan, New York, are often said to be opal, they are in fact opalescent glass
• The Roebling Opal, Smithsonian Institution^[45]
• The Galaxy Opal, listed as the "World's Largest Polished Opal" in the 1992 Guinness Book of Records^[46]

Chrysoberyl

Chrysoberyl
General
Category	Oxide minerals
Formula (repeating unit)	BeAl2O4
Strunz classification	04.BA.05
Crystal symmetry	Orthorhombic 2/m2/m2/m dipyramidal
Unit cell	a = 5.481 Å, b = 9.415 Å, c = 4.428 Å; Z = 8
Identification
Color	Various shades of green, yellow, brownish to greenish black, may be raspberry-red under incandescent light when chromian; colorless, pale shades of yellow, green, or red in transmitted light
Crystal habit	Crystals tabular or short prismatic, prominently striated
Crystal system	Orthorhombic
Twinning	Contact and penetration twins common, often repeated forming rosette structures
Cleavage	Distinct on {110}, imperfect on {010}, poor on {001}
Fracture	Conchoidal to uneven
Tenacity	Brittle
Mohs scalehardness	8.5
Luster	Vitreous
Streak	White
Specific gravity	3.5–3.84
Optical properties	Biaxial (+)
Refractive index	nα=1.745 nβ=1.748 nγ=1.754
Pleochroism	X = red; Y = yellow-orange; Z = emerald-green
2V angle	Measured: 70°
References	[1][2][3]
Major varieties
Alexandrite	Color change; green to red
Cymophane	Chatoyant

The mineral or gemstone chrysoberyl is an aluminate of beryllium with the formula BeAl₂O₄.^[3] The name chrysoberyl is derived from the Greek words χρυσός chrysos and βήρυλλος beryllos, meaning "a gold-white spar". Despite the similarity of their names, chrysoberyl and beryl are two completely different gemstones, although they both contain beryllium. Chrysoberyl is the third-hardest frequently encountered natural gemstone and lies at 8.5 on the hardness scale, between corundum (9) and topaz (8).^[4]

An interesting feature of its crystals are the cyclic twins called trillings. These twinned crystals have a hexagonal appearance, but are the result of a triplet of twins with each "twin" oriented at 120° to its neighbors and taking up 120° of the cyclic trilling. If only two of the three possible twin orientations are present, a "V"-shaped twin results.

Ordinary chrysoberyl is yellowish-green and transparent to translucent. When the mineral exhibits good pale green to yellow color and is transparent, then it is used as a gemstone. The three main varieties of chrysoberyl are: ordinary yellow-to-green chrysoberyl, cat's eye or cymophane, and alexandrite. Yellow-green chrysoberyl was referred to as "chrysolite" during the Victorian and Edwardian eras, which caused confusion since that name has also been used for the mineral olivine ("peridot" as a gemstone); that name is no longer used in the gemological nomenclature.

Alexandrite, a strongly pleochroic (trichroic) gem, will exhibit emerald green, red and orange-yellow colors depending on viewing direction in partially polarised light. However, its most distinctive property is that it also changes color in artificial (tungsten/halogen) light compared to daylight. The color change from red to green is due to strong absorption of light in a narrow yellow portion of the spectrum, while allowing large bands of more blue-green and red wavelengths to be transmitted. Which of these prevails to give the perceived hue depends on the spectral balance of the illumination. Fine-quality alexandrite has a green to bluish-green color in daylight (relatively blue illumination of high color temperature), changing to a red to purplish-red color in incandescent light (relatively yellow illumination).^[5] However, fine-color material is extremely rare. Less-desirable stones may have daylight colors of yellowish-green and incandescent colors of brownish red.^[5]

Cymophane is popularly known as "cat's eye". This variety exhibits pleasing chatoyancy or opalescence that reminds one of the eye of a cat. When cut to produce a cabochon, the mineral forms a light-green specimen with a silky band of light extending across the surface of the stone.

Occurrence[edit]

Chrysoberyl forms as a result of pegmatitic processes. Melting in the Earth's crust produces relatively low-density molten magma which can rise upwards towards the surface. As the main magma body cools, water originally present in low concentrations became more concentrated in the molten rock because it could not be incorporated into the crystallization of solid minerals. The remnant magma thus becomes richer in water, and also in rare elements that similarly do not fit in the crystal structures of major rock-forming minerals. The water extends the temperature range downwards before the magma becomes completely solid, allowing concentration of rare elements to proceed so far that they produce their own distinctive minerals. The resulting rock is igneous in appearance but formed at a low temperature from a water-rich melt, with large crystals of the common minerals such as quartz and feldspar, but also with elevated concentrations of rare elements such as beryllium, lithium, or niobium, often forming their own minerals; this is called a pegmatite. The high water content of the magma made it possible for the crystals to grow quickly, so pegmatite crystals are often quite large, which increases the likelihood of gem specimens forming.

Chrysoberyl can also grow in the country rocks near to pegmatites, when Be- and Al-rich fluids from the pegmatite react with surrounding minerals. Hence, it can be found in mica schists and in contact with metamorphic deposits of dolomitic marble. Because it is a hard, dense mineral that is resistant to chemical alteration, it can be weathered out of rocks and deposited in river sands and gravels in alluvial deposits with other gem minerals such as diamond, corundum, topaz, spinel, garnet, and tourmaline. When found in such placers, it will have rounded edges instead of sharp, wedge-shape forms. Much of the chrysoberyl mined in Brazil and Sri Lanka is recovered from placers, as the host rocks have been intensely weathered and eroded.

If the pegmatite fluid is rich in beryllium, crystals of beryl or chrysoberyl could form. Beryl has a high ratio of beryllium to aluminium, while the opposite is true for chrysoberyl. Both are stable with the common mineral quartz. For alexandrite to form, some chromium would also have had to be present. However, beryllium and chromium do not tend to occur in the same types of rock. Chromium is commonest in mafic and ultramafic rocks in which beryllium is extremely rare. Beryllium becomes concentrated in felsic pegmatites in which chromium is almost absent. Therefore, the only situation where an alexandrite can grow is when Be-rich pegmatitic fluids react with Cr-rich country rock. This unusual requirement explains the rarity of this chrysoberyl variety.

Alexandrite[edit]

The alexandrite variety displays a color change (alexandrite effect) dependent upon the nature of ambient lighting. Alexandrite effect is the phenomenon of an observed color change from greenish to reddish with a change in source illumination.^[6] Alexandrite results from small scale replacement of aluminium by chromium ions in the crystal structure, which causes intense absorption of light over a narrow range of wavelengths in the yellow region (580 nm) of the visible light spectrum.^[6] Because human vision is more sensitive to light in the green spectrum and the red spectrum, alexandrite appears greenish in daylight where a full spectrum of visible light is present and reddish in incandescent light which emits less green and blue spectrum.^[6] This color change is independent of any change of hue with viewing direction through the crystal that would arise frompleochroism.^[6]

Alexandrite from the Ural Mountains in Russia can be green by daylight and red by incandescent light. Other varieties of alexandrite may be yellowish or pink in daylight and a columbine or raspberry red by incandescent light.

Alexandrite step cut cushion, 26.75 cts.

Stones that show a dramatic color change and strong colors (e.g. red-to-green) are rare and sought-after,^[5] but stones that show less distinct colors (e.g. yellowish green changing to brownish yellow) may also be considered alexandrite by gem labs such as the Gemological Institute of America.^[7][8]

According to a popular but controversial story, alexandrite was discovered by the Finnish mineralogist Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1792–1866), and named alexandrite in honor of the future Tsar Alexander II of Russia. Nordenskiöld's initial discovery occurred as a result of an examination of a newly found mineral sample he had received from Perovskii, which he identified as emerald at first.^[9] The first emerald mine had been opened in 1831.

Alexandrite 5 carats (1,000 mg) and larger were traditionally thought to be found only in the Ural Mountains, but have since been found in larger sizes in Brazil. Other deposits are located in India (Andhra Pradesh),Madagascar, Tanzania and Sri Lanka. Alexandrite in sizes over three carats are very rare.

Today, several labs can produce synthetic lab-grown stones with the same chemical and physical properties as natural alexandrite. Several methods can produce flux-grown alexandrite, Czocchralski (or pulled) alexandrite, and hydrothermally-produced alexandrite. Flux-grown gems that are fairly difficult to distinguish from natural alexandrite as they contain inclusions that can look natural. Czochralski or pulled alexandrite is easier to identify because it is very clean and contains curved striations visible under magnification. Although the color change in pulled stones can be from blue to red, the color change does not truly resemble that of natural alexandrite from any deposit. Hydrothermal lab-grown alexandrite has identical physical and chemical properties to real alexandrite.^[10]

Some gemstones falsely described as lab-grown synthetic alexandrite are actually corundum laced with trace elements (e.g., vanadium) or color-change spinel and are not actually chrysoberyl. As a result, they would be more accurately described as simulated alexandrite rather than synthetic. This alexandrite-like sapphire material has been around for almost 100 years and shows a characteristic purple-mauve colour change, which does not really look like alexandrite because there is never any green.^[11]

Cymophane[edit]

Fine-color cymophane with a sharp and centered eye

Translucent yellowish chatoyant chrysoberyl is called cymophane or cat's eye. Cymophane has its derivation also from the Greek words meaning 'wave' and 'appearance', in reference to the haziness that visually distorts what would normally be viewed as a well defined surface of a cabochon. This effect may be combined with a cat eye effect. In this variety, microscopic tubelike cavities or needle-like inclusions ^[12] of rutile occur in an orientation parallel to the c-axis, producing a chatoyant effect visible as a single ray of light passing across the crystal. This effect is best seen in gemstones cut in cabochon form perpendicular to the c-axis. The color in yellow chrysoberyl is due to Fe³⁺ impurities.

Although other minerals such as tourmaline, scapolite, corundum, spinel and quartz can form "cat's eye" stones similar in appearance to cymophane, the jewelry industry designates these stones as "quartz cat's eyes", or "ruby cat's eyes" and only chrysoberyl can be referred to as "cat's eye" with no other designation.

Gems lacking the silky inclusions required to produce the cat's eye effect are usually faceted. An alexandrite cat's eye is a chrysoberyl cat's eye that changes color. "Milk and honey" is a term commonly used to describe the color of the best cat's eyes. The effect refers to the sharp milky ray of white light normally crossing the cabochon as a center line along its length and overlying the honey-colored background. The honey color is considered to be top-grade by many gemologists but the lemon yellow colors are also popular and attractive. Cat's eye material is found as a small percentage of the overall chrysoberyl production wherever chrysoberyl is found.

Cat's eye really became popular by the end of the 19th century when the Duke of Connaught gave a ring with a cat's eye as an engagement token; this was sufficient to make the stone more popular and increase its value greatly. Until that time, cat's eye had predominantly been present in gem and mineral collections. The increased demand in turn created an intensified search for it in Sri Lanka.^[13]

TURMALINAS CUPRÍFERAS DO BRASIL, NIGÉRIA E MOÇAMBIQUE 1ª Parte

TURMALINAS CUPRÍFERAS  DO BRASIL, NIGÉRIA E MOÇAMBIQUE 1ª Parte

As turmalinas conhecidas sob a designação ”Paraíba”, em alusão ao Estado onde foram primeiramente encontradas, causaram furor ao serem introduzidas no mercado internacional de gemas, em 1989, por suas surpreendentes cores até então jamais vistas. A descoberta dos primeiros indícios desta ocorrência deu-se sete anos antes, no município de São José da Batalha, onde estas turmalinas, da espécie elbaíta, ocorrem na forma de pequenos cristais irregulares em diques de pegmatitos decompostos, encaixados em quartzitos da Formação Equador, de Idade Proterozóica, associadas com quartzo, feldspato alterado, lepidolita, schorlo (turmalina preta) e óxidos de nióbio e tântalo, ou bem em depósitos secundários relacionados. Estas turmalinas ocorrem em vívidos matizes azuis claros, azuis turquesas, azuis “neon”(ou fluorescentes), azuis esverdeados, azuis-safira, azuis violáceos, verdes azulados e verdes-esmeralda, devidos principalmente aos teores de cobre e manganês presentes, sendo que o primeiro destes elementos jamais havia sido detectado como cromóforo em turmalinas de quaisquer procedências. A singularidade destas turmalinas cupríferas pode ser atribuída a três fatores: matiz mais atraente, tom mais claro e saturação mais forte que os usualmente observados em turmalinas azuis e verdes de outras procedências. Estes matizes azuis e verdes estão intimamente relacionados à presença do elemento cobre, presente em teores de até 2,38 % CuO, bem como a vários processos complexos envolvendo íons Fe2+ e Fe3+ e às transferências de carga de Fe2+ para Ti4+ e Mn2+ para Ti4+. Os matizes violetas avermelhados e violetas, por sua vez, devem-se aos teores anômalos de manganês. Uma considerável parte dos exemplares apresenta zoneamento de cor, conseqüência da mudança na composição química à medida que a turmalina se cristalizou. Em fevereiro de 1990, durante a tradicional feira de Tucson, nos EUA, teve início a escalada de preços desta variedade de turmalina, que passaram de umas poucas centenas de dólares por quilate a mais de US$2.000/ct, em questão de apenas 4 dias. A mística em torno da turmalina da Paraíba havia começado e cresceu extraordinariamente ao longo dos anos 90, convertendo-a na mais valiosa variedade deste grupo de minerais. A máxima produção da Mina da Batalha ocorreu entre os anos de 1989 e 1991 e, a partir de 1992, passou a ser esporádica e limitada, agravada pela disputa por sua propriedade legal e por seus direitos minerários. A elevada demanda por turmalinas da Paraíba, aliada à escassez de sua produção, estimulou a busca de material de aspecto similar em outros pegmatitos da região, resultando na descoberta das minas Mulungu e Alto dos Quintos, situadas próximas à cidade de Parelhas, no vizinho estado do Rio Grande do Norte. Estas minas passaram a produzir turmalinas cupríferas (Mina Mulungu com até 0,78 % CuO e Mina Alto dos Quinhos com até 0,69 % CuO) de qualidade média inferior às da Mina da Batalha, mas igualmente denominadas “Paraíba” no mercado internacional, principalmente por terem sido oferecidas muitas vezes misturadas à produção da Mina da Batalha. A valorização desta variedade de turmalina tem sido tão grande que, nos últimos anos, exemplares azuis a azuis esverdeados de excelente qualidade, com mais de 3 ct, chegam a alcançar cotações que superam os US$20.000/ct, no Japão. Embora as surpreendentes cores das turmalinas da Paraíba ocorram naturalmente, estima-se que aproximadamente 80% das gemas só as adquiram após tratamento térmico, a temperaturas entre 350 oC e 550 oC. O procedimento consiste, inicialmente, em selecionar os espécimes a serem tratados cuidadosamente, para evitar que a exposição ao calor danifique-os, especialmente aqueles com inclusões líquidas e fraturas pré-existentes. Em seguida, as gemas são colocadas sob pó de alumínio ou areia, no interior de uma estufa, em atmosfera oxidante. A temperatura ideal é alcançada, geralmente, após 2 horas e meia de aquecimento gradativo e, então, mantida por um período de cerca de 4 horas, sendo as gemas depois resfriadas a uma taxa de aproximadamente 50 oC por hora. As cores resultantes são a cobiçada azul-neon, a partir da azul esverdeada ou da azul violeta, e a verde esmeralda, a partir da púrpura avermelhada. Além do tratamento térmico, parte das turmalinas da Paraíba é submetida ao preenchimento de fissuras com óleo para minimizar a visibilidade das que alcancem a superfície. Até 2001, as turmalinas cupríferas da Paraíba e do Rio Grande do Norte eram facilmente distinguíveis das turmalinas oriundas de quaisquer outras procedências mediante detecção da presença de cobre com teores anômalos através de análise química por fluorescência de raios X de energia dispersiva (EDXRF), um ensaio analítico não disponível em laboratórios gemológicos standard. No entanto, as recentes descobertas de turmalinas cupríferas na Nigéria e em Moçambique acenderam um acalorado debate envolvendo o mercado e os principais laboratórios gemológicos do mundo em torno da definição do termo “Turmalina da Paraíba”, sobre o qual trataremos no artigo do próximo mês.

TURMALINAS CUPRÍFERAS DO BRASIL, NIGÉRIA E MOÇAMBIQUE 2ª Parte

TURMALINAS CUPRÍFERAS  DO BRASIL, NIGÉRIA E MOÇAMBIQUE 2ª Parte

Até o ano de 2001, o termo “Turmalina da Paraíba” referia-se à designação comercial das turmalinas da espécie elbaíta, de cores azuis, verdes ou púrpureas a violetas, que contivessem pelo menos 0,1% de CuO e proviessem unicamente do Brasil, precisamente dos estados da Paraíba (mina da Batalha, situada próxima à localidade de São José da Batalha) e do Rio Grande do Norte (minas de Mulungu e Alto dos Quintos, situadas nas vizinhanças da cidade de Parelhas). Tudo começou a mudar quando, naquele ano, uma nova fonte de turmalinas cupríferas foi descoberta na Nigéria, na localidade de Ilorin (mina de Edeko), voltando a ocorrer quatro anos mais tarde, em meados de 2005, desta vez em Moçambique, na região de Alto Ligonha, aproximadamente 100 km a sudoeste da capital Nampula. De modo geral, as elbaítas com cobre destes países africanos não possuem cores tão vívidas quanto às das brasileiras, embora os melhores exemplares da Nigéria e de Moçambique se assemelhem aos brasileiros. Análises químicas revelaram que as turmalinas da Nigéria têm concentrações surpreendentemente altas de cobre (até 2,18 % CuO), muito similares aos das encontradas no Brasil (Mina da Batalha: até 2,38 % CuO; Mulungu: até 0,78 % CuO; e Alto dos Quinhos: até 0,69 % CuO). O achado destes depósitos africanos ocasionou acalorados debates no mercado e entre laboratórios, uma vez que as gemas de cores azuis a verdes saturadas procedentes da Nigéria e de Moçambique não podem ser diferenciadas das produzidas no Brasil por meio de ensaios gemológicos usuais e tampouco por análises químicas semi-quantitativas obtidas pela técnica denominada EDXRF. Recentemente, constatou-se ser possível determinar a origem das turmalinas destes 3 países por meio de dados geoquímicos quantitativos de elementos presentes como traços, obtidos por uma técnica analítica conhecida por LA-ICP-MS (abreviatura do termo em inglês laser ablation-inductively coupled plasma-mass spectometry). De modo geral, as turmalinas da Nigéria contêm quantidades maiores dos elementos Ga, Ge e Pb, enquanto as procedentes do Brasil têm teores mais elevados de Mg, Zn e Sb. As turmalinas cupríferas de Moçambique, por sua vez, exibem conteúdos enriquecidos dos elementos Be, Sc, Ga, Pb e Bi, mas nelas falta Mg. No que se refere às inclusões, o quadro típico das turmalinas da Nigéria guarda similaridade com o do Brasil, e nele se observam inclusões bifásicas (líquidas e gasosas), fraturas cicatrizadas, plumas, minerais e, ocasionalmente, tubos de crescimento. Estes últimos, de cor amarela amarronzada, são muito mais freqüentes - embora não exclusivos - das turmalinas da Nigéria. Em fevereiro de 2006, o Comitê de Harmonização de Procedimentos de Laboratórios, que consiste de representantes dos principais laboratórios gemológicos do mundo, decidiu reconsiderar a nomenclatura de turmalina da “Paraíba”, definindo esta valiosa variedade como uma elbaíta de cores azul-néon, azul-violeta, azul esverdeada, verde azulada ou verde-esmeralda, que contenha cobre e manganês e aspecto similar ao material original proveniente da Paraíba, independentemente de sua origem geográfica. Nos certificados, deve ser descrita como pertencente à espécie “elbaíta”, variedade “turmalina da Paraíba”, citando, sob a forma de um comentário, que este último termo deriva-se da localidade onde foi originalmente lavrada no Brasil. A determinação de origem torna-se, portanto, opcional. Esta política é consistente com as normas da CIBJO, que consideram a turmalina da Paraíba uma variedade ou designação comercial e a definem como dotada de cor azul a verde devida ao cobre, sem qualquer menção ao local de origem. Por outro lado, como essas turmalinas cupríferas são cotizadas não apenas de acordo com seu aspecto, mas também segundo sua procedência, tem-se estimulado a divulgação, apesar de opcional, de informações sobre sua origem nos documentos emitidos pelos laboratórios gemológicos, solicitação que muito poucos terão recursos para atender satisfatoriamente.

TURMALINAS CUPRÍFERAS DO BRASIL, NIGÉRIA E MOÇAMBIQUE 3ª Parte - SUBSTITUTOS

TURMALINAS CUPRÍFERAS  DO BRASIL, NIGÉRIA E MOÇAMBIQUE 3ª Parte - SUBSTITUTOS

As turmalinas cupríferas azuis a azuis esverdeadas provenientes do Brasil (Paraíba e Rio Grande do Norte), Nigéria e Moçambique, conhecidas como turmalinas da Paraíba, vêm alcançando cotações crescentes no mercado internacional há alguns anos, o que estimulou o emprego de uma série de substitutos para elas, como ocorre com as mais cobiçadas gemas. Como as turmalinas não são obtidas por síntese para fins gemológicos, mas apenas experimentalmente e com objetivos tecnológicos, outras gemas naturais, compostas e imitações têm sido utilizadas com esta finalidade. Os mais eficazes substitutos são, evidentemente, as turmalinas naturais não-cupríferas de cores algo similares às das legítimas elbaítas da Paraíba. Embora não apresentem a saturação vívida destas, ocasionalmente suscitam dúvidas quanto a sua identidade (cupríferas ou não), o que, infelizmente, não pode ser conclusivamente diagnosticado apenas por meio de ensaios gemológicos usuais. A apatita que, na realidade, trata-se de um grupo de minerais, é a segunda gema natural mais utilizada como substituto da turmalina da Paraíba. Este fosfato de cálcio e flúor é empregado, principalmente, como fertilizante, nas indústrias química e farmacêutica e, em muito menor proporção, destinado à joalheria. Os exemplares azuis e azuis esverdeados de qualidade gemológica provenientes, sobretudo, de Madagascar, do Brasil e de Mianmar possuem aspecto e tons bastante similares aos da turmalina da Paraíba. A distinção entre a apatita e a turmalina é simples quando se dispõe de instrumentos gemológicos básicos, pois, embora estas duas gemas apresentem índices de refração próximos, sua birrefringência, peso específico e espectro de absorção (se presente) são bastante diferentes. A apatita apresenta um suprimento relativamente grande, geograficamente diversificado e regular. O inconveniente em utilizá-la em larga escala na indústria joalheira reside no fato de que sua dureza é de apenas 5 na Escala de Mohs, semelhante à do vidro, o que significa que possui brilho menos intenso e é muito mais facilmente riscável que a turmalina, apresentando, portanto, menor durabilidade que esta. Em vista disso, é recomendável empregá-la na confecção de peças de joalheria menos sujeitas ao contato com outras superfícies, principalmente na forma de brincos ou pingentes, e menos aconselhável em anéis e pulseiras. Recentemente, apareceram no mercado brasileiro zircônias cúbicas de cor azul “neon” muito similar à da turmalina da Paraíba. Felizmente, elas são facilmente identificáveis por sua densidade muito superior à da turmalina, sua natureza isótropa (comporta-se de forma distinta ao exame no polariscópio, extinguindo a luz por completo), por apresentarem leitura negativa no refratômetro (o índice de refração da zircônia cúbica é superior ao limite do instrumento) e por não exibirem o cenário típico de inclusões das turmalinas, caracterizado por inclusões fluidas, tubos de crescimento e/ou minerais. Outros substitutos menos eficazes, mas vistos com enorme freqüência no mercado, por se tratarem de materiais de baixo custo, são os vidros artificiais e as gemas compostas (dobletes e tripletes). Os vidros artificiais que imitam a turmalina da Paraíba possuem peso específico e índice de refração variáveis segundo a composição, mas geralmente muito inferiores aos da turmalina, apresentam completa extinção da luz no polariscópio (por sua natureza monorrefringente) e costumam exibir forte reação à luz ultravioleta (sobretudo de ondas curtas). Além disso, com uma simples lupa de 10 aumentos, pode-se observar o quadro de inclusões característico dos vidros artificiais, com bolhas de gás esféricas e/ou alongadas e estruturas resultantes da distribuição heterogênea dos seus constituintes, conhecidas como “marcas de redemoinho”, ausentes na turmalina.